Thursday, August 1, 2019
Education in Great Britain
ââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬âââ¬â- EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN 6/7. Greatà Britainà doesà notà haveà aà writtenà constitution,à soà thereà areà noà constitutionalà provisionsà forà education. Theà systemà ofà educationà isà determinedà byà theà Nationalà Educationà Acts. Schoolsà inà Englandà areà supportedà fromà publicà fundsà paidà toà theà localà educationà authorities. Theseà localà educationà authoritiesà areà responsibleà forà organizingà theà schoolsà inà theirà areasà andà theyà themselvesà chooseà howà toà doà it.Letââ¬â¢sà outlineà theà basicà featuresà ofà publicà educationà inà Britain. Firstly,à thereà areà wideà variationsà betweenà oneà partà ofà the à countryà andà another. Forà mostà educationalà purposesà Englandà andà Walesà areà treatedà asà oneà unit,à thoughà theà systemà inà Walesà isà aà littleà differentà fromà thatà ofà England. Scotlandà andà Northernà Irelandà haveà theirà own à educationà systems. Secondly,à educationà inà Britainà mirrorsà theà countryââ¬â¢sà socialà system:à ità isà class-dividedà andà selective. Theà firstà divisionà isà betweenà thoseà whoà payà andà thoseà whoà doà notà pay.Theà majorityà ofà schoolsà inà Britainà areà supportedà byà publicà fundsà andà theà educationà providedà isà free. Theyà areà maintainedà schools,à butà thereà isà alsoà aà considerableà numberà ofà publicà schools. Parentsà haveà toà payà feesà toà sendà theirà childrenà toà theseà schools. Theà feesà areà high. Asà aà matterà ofà fact,à onlyà veryà richà familiesà canà sendà theirà childrenà toà publicà schoolsà asà wellà asà toà theà bestà universities,à suchà asà Oxfordà andà Cambridge. Anotherà importantà featureà ofà schoolingà inà Britainà isà aà varietyà ofà opportunitiesà offeredà toà schoolchildren.Theà Englishà schoolà syllabusà isà dividedà intoà Artsà (orà Humanities)à andà Sciences,à whichà determineà theà divisionà ofà theà secondaryà schoolà pupilsà intoà studyà groups:à aà Scienceà pupilà willà studyà Chemistry,à Physics,à Mathematicsà (Maths),à Economics,à Technicalà Drawing,à Biology,à Geography;à anà Artà pupilà willà doà theà Englishà Languageà andà Literature,à History,à foreignà languages,à Music,à Art,à Drama. Besidesà theseà subjectsà theyà mustà doà someà generalà educationà subjectsà likeà Physicalà Educationà (PE),à Homeà Economicsà forà girls,à andà Technicalà subjectsà forà boys,à Generalà Science.Computersà play anà importantà partà inà education. Thereà isà aà systemà ofà careersà educationà forà schoolchildrenà inà Britain. Ità isà aà three-yearà course. Theà systemà ofà optionà existsà inà allà kindsà ofà secondaryà schools. Besides,à theà structureà ofà theà curriculumà andà theà organizationà ofà teachingà varyà fromà schoolà toà school. Headmastersà andà headmistressesà ofà schoolsà areà givenà aà greatà dealà ofà freedomà i nà decidingà whatà isà taughtà andà howà inà theirà schoolsà soà thatà thereà isà reallyà noà centralà controlà at à allà overà individualà schools.Theà Nationalà Educationà Actà ofà 1944à providedà threeà stagesà ofà education;à primary,à secondaryà andà furtherà education. Compulsoryà schoolingà inà Englandà andà Walesà lastsà 11à years,à fromà theà ageà ofà 5à toà 16. Afterà theà ageà ofà 16à aà growingà numberà ofà schoolà studentsà areà stayingà onà atà school,à someà untilà 18à orà 19,à theà ageà ofà entryà intoà higherà educationà inà universitiesà andà Polytechnics. Britishà universityà coursesà areà ratherà short,à generallyà lastingà forà 3à years.Theà costà ofà educationà dependsà onà theà collegeà andà specialityà whichà oneà chooses. Pre-primaryà andà Primaryà Education Nurseries. Primaryà School. Streaming. Theà Eleven à Plusà Examination. Noà Moreà ofà It? Inà someà areasà ofà Englandà thereà areà nurseryà schoolsà à 3à forà childrenà underà 5à yearsà ofà age. Someà childrenà betweenà twoà andà fiveà receiveà educationà inà nurseryà classesà orà inà infantsà classesà inà primaryà schools. Manyà childrenà attendà informalà pre-schoolà play-groupsà organizedà byà parentsà inà privateà homes.Nurseryà schoolsà areà staffedà withà teachersà andà studentsà inà training. Thereà areà allà kindsà ofà toysà toà keepà theà childrenà busyà fromà 9à oââ¬â¢clockà inà theà morningà tillà 4à oââ¬â¢clockà inà theà afternoonà ââ¬âà whileà theirà parentsà areà atà work. Hereà theà babiesà play,à lunchà andà sleep. Theyà canà runà aboutà andà playà inà safetyà withà someoneà keepingà anà eyeà onà them. Forà dayà nurseriesà whichà remainà openà allà theà yearà roundà (heà parentsà payà accordingà toà theirà income. Theà localà educationà authorityââ¬â¢sà nurseriesà areà free.Butà onlyà aboutà threeà childrenà inà 100à canà goà toà them:à thereà arenââ¬â¢tà enoughà places,à andà theà waitingà listsà areà ratherà long. Mostà childrenà startà schoolà atà 5à inà aà primaryà school. Aà primaryà schoolà mayà be dividedà intoà twoà partsà -infantsà andà juniors. Atà infantsà schoolà reading,à writingà and à arithmeticà areà taughtà forà aboutà 20à minutesà aà dayà duringà theà firstà year,à graduallyà increasingà toà aboutà 2à hoursà inà theirà lastà year. Thereà isà usuallyà noà writtenà timetable. Muchà timeà isà spentà inà modellingà fromà clayà orà drawing,à readingà orà singing.Byà theà timeà childrenà areà readyà forà theà juniorà schoolà theyà willà beà ableà toà readà andà write,à doà simpleà additionà andà subtractionà ofà numbers. Atà 7à childrenà goà onà fromà theà infantsà schoolà toà theà juniorà school. Thisà marksà theà transitionà fromà playà toà ââ¬Å"realà workâ⬠. Theà childrenà haveà setà periodsà ofà arithmetic,à readingà andà compositionà whichà areà allà Elevenà Plusà subjects. History,à Geography,à Natureà Study,à Artà andà Music,à Physicalà Education,à Swimmingà areà alsoà onà theà timetable. Pupilsà areà streamedà accordingà toà theirà abilitiesà toà learnà intoà A,à B,à ?à andà Dà streams.Theà leastà giftedà areà inà theà Dà stream. Formallyà towardsà theà endà ofà theirà fourthà yearà theà pupilsà wroteà theirà Elevenà Plusà Examination. Theà hatedà 11à +à examinationà wasà aà selectiveà procedureà onà whichà notà onlyà theà pupilsââ¬â¢Ã futureà schoolingà butà theirà futureà careersà depended. Theà abolitionà ofà selectionà atà Elevenà Plusà Examinationà broughtà toà lifeà comprehensiveà schoolsà whereà pupilsà canà getà secondaryà education. Secondaryà Education Comprehensiveà Schools. Grammarà Schools. Secondaryà Modernà Schools. Theà Sixthà Form. Noà Moreà Inequality?.Cutsà onà Schoolà Spending Afterà theà ageà ofà 11,à mostà childrenà goà toà comprehensiveà schoolsà ofà whichà theà majorityà areà forà bothà ââ¬âboysà andà girls. Aboutà 90à perà centà ofà allà state-financedà secondaryà schoolsà areà ofà thisà type. Mostà otherà childrenà receiveà secondaryà educationà inà grammarà andà secondaryà modernà schools. Comprehensiveà schoolsà wereà introducedà inà 1965. Theà ideaà ofà comprehensiveà education,à supportedà byà theà Labourà Party,à wasà toà giveà allà childrenà ofà whateverà backgroundà theà sameà opportunityà inà education.Onlyà aboutà 20à perà centà ofà childrenà studyà forà theà Generalà Certificateà ofà Education,à Ordinaryà Levelà (GCEà ?-level). Mostà childrenà doà notà passà GCEà examinations. Theyà leaveà schoolà atà 16à withoutà anyà realà qualificationà andà moreà often thanà notà increaseà theà ranksà ofà unemployedà people. Pupilsà ofà modernà schoolsà takeà theirà Certificateà ofà Secondaryà Educationà (CSE)à examinationsà whileà inà grammarà schoolsà almostà allà childrenà stayà toà sixteenà toà takeà ?-levels. Moreà thanà halfà ofà themà stayà onà toà takeà ?-levels.Someà comprehensiveà andà manyà secondaryà schools,à however,à doà notà haveà enoughà academicà coursesà forà sixth-formers. Pupilsà canà transferà eitherà toà aà grammarà schoolà orà toà aà sixt h-formà collegeà toà getà theà coursesà theyà want. Theà majorityà ofà schoolsà inà Scotlandà areà six-yearà comprehensives. Secondaryà educationà inà Northernà Irelandà isà organizedà alongà selectiveà linesà accordingà toà childrenââ¬â¢sà abilities. Oneà canà hardlyà sayà thatà highà qualityà secondaryà educationà isà providedà forà allà inà Britain.Thereà isà aà highà lossà ofà pupilsà fromà working-classà familiesà atà entryà intoà theà sixthà form. Ifà youà areà aà working-classà childà at à schoolà today,à theà chanceà ofà yourà reachingà theà secondà yearà ofà aà sixth-à formà courseà isà probablyà lessà thanà one-twelfthà ofà thatà forà theà childà ofà aà professionalà parent. Besides,à governmentà cutsà onà schoolà spendingà causedà many à difficulties. Secondaryà Schoolà Examinations Timeà forà Examinations. GCE. CSE. Theà Sixthà Forms. CEE.GCSE Pupilsà atà secondaryà schoolsà inà Englandà (thatà is,à pupilsà betweenà theà agesà ofà twelveà andà eighteen)à haveà twoà mainà examsà toà worryà about,à bothà calledà GCEà ââ¬âà Generalà Certificateà ofà Education. Theyà takeà theà firstà oneà whenà theyà areà aboutà fifteen. Itââ¬â¢sà calledà O-à level. Thereà isà anà examà whichà youà canà takeà insteadà ofà ?-level:à ità isà calledà theà CSEà (Certificateà ofà Secondaryà Education),à andà ità isà notà asà difficultà asà O-level. Mostà pupilsà takeà ?-levelà inà aboutà sevenà orà eightà differentà subjec ts.Thereà areà lotsà ofà subjectsà toà chooseà fromà ââ¬âeverythingà fromà carpentryà toà ancientà languages. Forà aà lotà ofà jobs,à suchà asà nursing,à orà assistantà librarian,à youà mustà haveà fourà orà fiveà ?-levels,à andà usuallyà theseà mustà includeà Englishà andà Maths. Youà mayà leaveà schoolà whenà youà areà 16. Butà ifà youà stayà atà schoolà afterà takingà ?-level,à youà goà intoà theà sixthà form. Theà sixthà formsà andà sixth-formà collegesà offerà aà wideà rangeà ofà courses. Ordinaryà levelà alternative,à CEEà (Certificateà ofà ExtendedEducation)à andà CSEà coursesà areà offeredà toà pupilsà whoà needà qualificationsà atà aà lowerà level. Butà ifà youà haveà madeà upà yourà mindà toà gainà entryà toà aà university,à Polytechnicà orà collegeà ofà furtherà educationà youà haveà toà startà workingà forà theà secondà mainà examinationà ââ¬âà A-level. Mostà peopleà takeà ?-levelà whenà theyà areà aboutà eighteen. Ità isà quiteà aà difficultà exam,à soà peopleà donââ¬â¢tà usuallyà takeà ità inà moreà thanà 3à subjectsââ¬âà andà someà onlyà inà oneà orà twoà subjects. Threeà ?-levelsà areà enoughà toà getà youà inà toà mostà universities.Forà others,à suchà asà Oxfordà andà Cambridge,à youà haveà toà takeà specialà examsà asà well. Aà newà school-leavingà certificateà isà planned,à however,à andà O-levelà andà CSEà willà beà replacedà byà oneà publicà exam,à th eà Generalà Certificateà ofà Secondaryà Educationà (GCSE). Ità isà toà showà howà childrenà workedà throughoutà 5à yearsà ofà secondaryà school. 5. Parliamentary elections in the United Kingdom should be seen as a referendum on the performance of sitting MPs, not merely as a snapshot nationwide opinion poll determining party voting weights for the next Parliament.The electoral system affects the degree to which voters may hold their representatives to account for their actions in the previous Parliament; changes which would diminish this accountability mechanism should be resisted. The UK presently has a legislature whose unelected chamber better reflects the relative strength of the Labour, Conservative, Liberal Democrat and None of the Above parties. Conversely, if Labour and the Conservatives each won 50% of the vote, the other chamber would have a sizable Labour majority. 51% of the seats in the Lower House delivers 100% of t he power, and this can be captured by Labour on about 40% of the vote.Nevertheless, whenever Labour runs into opposition from the chamber which, in any other context, would be described as more ââ¬Å"representativeâ⬠by people who go in for that kind of thing, it threatens to force its legislation through under the Parliament Acts, on the grounds that the Lower House is more ââ¬Å"democraticâ⬠. The Lower Houseà isà more democratic. Contrary to the self-serving views of the Liberal Democrats and other jejune supporters of electoral ââ¬Å"reformâ⬠, what matters for democracy is not representativeness or proportionality, so much as accountability and responsiveness.When MPs behave in accordance with their constituents' wishes, this is to be preferred to their merely existing in party groupings of such sizes as best reflect their constituents' choices at the previous election. When discussing electoral reform in the UK, retaining a ââ¬Å"constituency linkâ⬠i s often posited as a requirement. That is to say, it is felt to be necessary that everyone should have an MP who is in some sense ââ¬Å"theirsâ⬠, normally meaning that people are grouped into geographical areas and each area gets its own MP. A weaker version of this permits multiple MPs for each area.This is supposed to be good because it means that there's automatically someone in Parliament to go to with one's grievances. There is a much better reason why it happens to be good. If we merely say that everyone must have one or a small number of MPs, that does not imply that every MP must have his own constituency. The German federal electoral system and its antipodean imitator in New Zealand affords MPs who have no constituencies: they are elected from party lists and assigned in such numbers as ensure that the proportion of MPs in each party in the chamber match the proportion of the vote each party won.This category of MPs shares the same vice as MPs in a chamber fully elect ed by a proportional system: they can't be voted out of office directly. If your MP decides to go against the wishes of his constituents, they can contact him and say, ââ¬Å"Hi, your majority at the last election was 2000; we, the undersigned 1001 who voted for you last time will vote against your party next time unless you buck the whip on this issue we care about. â⬠The easier it is to do this, the more likely the behaviour of an MP will reflect the wishes of constituents.Don't believe the canard about votes not counting: every vote against the person who won counts against his majority and makes him more susceptible to pressure from his constituents before the next election. The electoral system can restrain this tactic. It works well under First Past The Post, and similar systems. Generally, increasing the number of MPs who represent a single constituency has the effect of making this tactic harder, as the punishment from electors may be spread across several MPs, especia lly if the electors cannot choose which MPs from a paricular party get the benefit of their vote.This is a notorious problem with the European Parliamentary elections in Great Britain: if some MEP is the ringleader for a particularly odious policy, she cannot easily be voted out without voting out the colleagues from her party. Even when a free choice on the preferential ordering of MPs is permitted, it is difficult to stop the disliked MP from riding back to election on the coattails of his more popular colleagues. So, in order of preferability, the electoral systems rank as follows: * First Past The Post, and Alternative Vote Single Transferable Vote in multimember constituencies * Proper Proportional Representation systems with open lists * Proper Proportional Representation systems with closed lists Having said all this, it must be stressed that electoral reform for the House of Commons should not be considered in isolation from the composition of the other chamber, and the rela tion between the Commons and three other institutions: the executive, the House of lords, and the courts.Some notes: Alternative Vote is the Australian name for a system which when used in single-member constituencies is identical to STV: electors rank the candidates in order of preference, and the least popular candidate is repeatedly eliminated until someone has over 50%; essentially, once a candidate is eliminated, a vote is regarded as counting for whichever remaining candidate was most preferred by its caster.The effect of this system tends to be obliteration of extremists without penalising or ââ¬Å"wastingâ⬠protest votes. It should be noted that in the British debate, ââ¬Å"Proportional Representationâ⬠is used to mean proper PR systemsà andà STV/AV. The Australian Electoral Commissionà usedà to have an excellent webpage with a classification of all the electoral systems used in Australia's twenty-odd legislative chambers, but they've apparently improved it off their site now.Other fallacious views on electoral systems which it is useful to rebut at this juncture include the contention that FPTP entrenches a two-party system (in fact, the number of parties is contingent on the geographical concentration of voters), that AV in the UK in 1997 would have led to a larger Labour majority (only if you didn't tell people and the parties what the electoral system was in advance, otherwise the parties would have behaved differently), and that geographical constituencies are a relic of a bygone age and are being replaced by PR across Europe, or at least the world.FPTP is described by Hilaire Barnett in her militantly Anglosceptic tome on the British constitution as ââ¬Å"stillâ⬠existing in some dusty English-speaking corners of the planet; in fact some countries using PR have been moving towards constituencies: Italy did in the 1990s, and the Dutch are considering a similar move. 2. POLITICAL PARTIESThe idea of political parties first took form in Britain and the Conservative Party claims to be the oldest political party in the world. Political parties began to form during the English civil wars of the 1640s and 1650s. First, there were Royalists and Parliamentarians; then Tories and Whigs. Whereas the Whigs wanted to curtail the power of the monarch, the Tories ââ¬â today the Conservatives ââ¬â were seen as the patriotic party.Today there are three major political parties in the British system of politics: * The Labour Party ââ¬â the centre-Left party currently led by Ed Miliband * The Conservative Party (frequently called the Tories) ââ¬â the centre-Right party currently led by David Cameron * The Liberal Democrat Party (known as the Lib Dems) ââ¬â the centrist, libertarian party currently led by Nick Clegg In addition to these three main parties, there are some much smaller UK parties (notably the UK Independence Party and the Green Party) and some parties which operate specifically in Scot land (the Scottish National Party), Wales (Plaid Cymru) or Northern Ireland (such as Sinn Fein for the nationalists and the Democratic Unionist Party for the loyalists). Each political party chooses its leader in a different way, but all involve all the Members of Parliament of the party and all the individual members of that party.By convention, the leader of the political party with the largest number of members in the House of Commons becomes the Prime Minster (formally at the invitation of the Queen). Political parties are an all-important feature of the British political system because: * The three main political parties in the UK have existed for a century or more and have a strong and stable ââ¬Ëbrand image'. * It is virtually impossible for someone to be elected to the House of Commons without being a member of an established political party. * All political parties strongly ââ¬Ëwhip' their elected members which means that, on the vast majority of issues, Members of Pa rliament of the same party vote as a ââ¬Ëblock'. Having said this, the influence of the hree main political parties is not as dominant as it was in the 1940s and 1950s because: * The three parties have smaller memberships than they did since voters are much less inclined to join a political party. * The three parties secure a lower overall percentage of the total vote since smaller parties between them now take a growing share of the vote. * Voters are much less ââ¬Ëtribal', supporting the same party at every election, and much more likely to ââ¬Ëfloat, voting for different parties at successive elections. * The ideological differences between the parties are less than they were with the parties adopting more ââ¬Ëpragmatic' positions on many issues. In the past, class was a major determinant of voting intention in British politics, with most working class electors voting Labour and most middle class electors voting Conservative.These days, class is much less important be cause: * Working class numbers have shrunk and now represent only 43% of the electorate. * Except at the extremes of wealth, lifestyles are more similar. * Class does not determine voting intention so much as values, trust and competence. In the British political system, there is a broad consensus between the major parties on: * the rule of law * the free market economy * the national health service * UK membership of European Union and NATO The main differences between the political parties concern: * how to tackle poverty and inequality * the levels and forms of taxation * the extent of state intervention in the economy * the balance between collective rights and individual rights
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